Add incremental delta refresh and fix Decimal/datetime cache binding

CHANGELOG.md

@@ -6,6 +6,27 @@ All notable changes to this project will be documented in this file.
 
 ---
 
+## [1.3.1] - 2026-06-05
+
+### Fixed
+- **`decimal.Decimal` (and `datetime`) binding error** — `NUMERIC`/`DECIMAL`/`MONEY` columns from SQL Server (pyodbc) arrive as `decimal.Decimal`, which `sqlite3` cannot bind, crashing the cache load with `type 'decimal.Decimal' is not supported`. Values are now coerced to sqlite-bindable types (`Decimal`→`str`, `datetime`/`date`/`time`→ISO, `uuid.UUID`→`str`, `bytearray`→`bytes`) at the cache boundary — on full load, on delta upsert, and for WHERE parameters. Coercion is local (no global `sqlite3.register_adapter`), so the host application's `sqlite3` behaviour is untouched. Cache columns are `TEXT`, so the conversion is lossless and exact (no rounding).
+
+### Added
+- **Incremental (delta) refresh** — `CachingEngine(engine, delta={...})` with `DeltaConfig(change_column, key_columns)`. Delta-tracked tables are kept in sync by pulling only changed rows (`WHERE change_column >= watermark`) and upserting them by key, instead of full reloads.
+  - Data-driven high-watermark = `max(change_column)` cached, persisted in `cache.db`; `>=` overlap + idempotent upsert so no row is missed and boundary rows are harmlessly re-read.
+  - Catch-up on startup (since last shutdown) and a background thread refreshing every `SQLMEM_REFRESH_INTERVAL` seconds (default 300); `engine.refresh()` triggers a pull on demand.
+  - Primary key is auto-discovered from the source DB (`inspect(engine).get_pk_constraint`) when `key_columns` is omitted; required explicitly for views (raises `ValueError`).
+- `DeltaConfig` exported from the public API.
+- `engine.reset()` — wipes the whole cache (RAM + `cache.db`) for a clean rebuild after structural source changes.
+- `SQLMEM_REFRESH_INTERVAL` env var (default `300`).
+
+### Changed
+- `pyproject.toml` — bumped version to `1.3.1`
+- `cache.py` — schema version bumped to `3`; `_sqlmem_tables` gained a `last_synced_at` watermark column. New methods: `execute_in_memory` (lock-serialized read), `get_table_columns`, `create_unique_index`, `get/set_last_synced_at`, `max_value`, `upsert_rows`, `reset`. Existing on-disk caches are discarded and rebuilt on load.
+- `executor.py` — loading a delta-tracked table augments the column set with its key and change columns, creates the unique key index, and records the initial watermark; in-memory reads now go through the cache lock.
+
+---
+
 ## [1.2.0] - 2026-06-04
 
 ### Added

README.md

@@ -1,28 +1,70 @@
 # SQLmem
 
-Transparent in-memory cache layer between SQLAlchemy and your database. Drop it in front of any SQLAlchemy engine — SELECT queries are served from a fast in-memory SQLite cache, writes pass through unchanged.
+Transparent in-memory cache layer between SQLAlchemy and your database. Drop it in front of any SQLAlchemy engine — `SELECT` queries are served from a fast in-memory SQLite cache, writes are rejected (read-only cache).
+
+## Goals
+
+SQLmem sits **between your application and the database** and behaves like a normal SQLAlchemy connection. It transparently:
+
+1. **Intercepts every query** that passes through it and learns, from the SQL itself, **which tables and which columns** the application actually uses.
+2. **Holds exactly those tables/columns locally in SQLite** — primarily in **RAM**, secondarily persisted to **disk** (`cache.db`) at regular intervals and on shutdown.
+3. **Serves repeated queries from RAM** with no database round-trip.
+4. **Stays in sync incrementally** (see [Incremental refresh](#incremental-delta-refresh)): for large tables you declare a *change-timestamp* column, and SQLmem only re-fetches rows that changed in the last few minutes (or since the last shutdown) instead of reloading tens of millions of rows on every start.
+
+The application keeps calling SQL as usual — the cache is an implementation detail behind the interface.
 
 ## How it works
 
-```
-Application (SQLAlchemy)
-        │
-        ▼
-  [ SQLmem Proxy ]
-  ┌──────────────────────────────┐
-  │  SQL Parser                  │  → detects SELECT vs. write
-  │  Column Registry             │  → tracks which columns are cached per table
-  │  Cache Manager (SQLite RAM)  │  → stores data in memory
-  │  Query Executor              │  → cache hit / miss logic
-  └──────────────────────────────┘
-        │
-        ▼
-  Database (via original SQLAlchemy engine)
+```mermaid
+flowchart TB
+    App["Application (SQLAlchemy code)"]
+    DB[("Source database")]
+
+    subgraph SM["SQLmem - transparent cache layer"]
+        direction TB
+        P["SQL Parser (sqlglot)<br/>detect SELECT vs write<br/>extract tables + columns"]
+        R["Column Registry<br/>tracks tables + columns in cache"]
+        QE["Query Executor<br/>cache hit / miss / refetch"]
+        MEM[("In-memory SQLite - PRIMARY")]
+        DISK[("cache.db on disk - SECONDARY")]
+        P --> R --> QE --> MEM
+        MEM -->|"backup every N s + on shutdown"| DISK
+        DISK -->|"load on startup"| MEM
+    end
+
+    App -->|"execute(sql, params)"| P
+    QE -->|"cache miss / delta refresh only"| DB
+    DB -->|"rows"| MEM
+    MEM -->|"list of dicts"| App
 ```
 
-On the first SELECT for a table, SQLmem fetches the required rows from the database and stores them in an in-memory SQLite instance. Subsequent queries for the same columns hit the in-memory cache with no database round-trip. When a query requests a column not yet in cache, SQLmem re-fetches the table with the expanded column set.
+On the first `SELECT` touching a table, SQLmem fetches the required rows from the database and stores them in the in-memory SQLite. Subsequent queries for the same columns hit RAM with no database round-trip. When a query requests a column not yet cached, SQLmem re-fetches the table with the expanded column set. Parametrized queries, JOINs and `SELECT *` are all supported; each table in a JOIN is cached independently and the JOIN runs inside the in-memory SQLite.
 
-Parametrized queries, JOINs and `SELECT *` are all supported. Each table referenced in a JOIN is cached independently; the JOIN itself runs in the in-memory SQLite. Query parameters are applied during in-memory filtering, so cache loads always fetch the full table regardless of the `WHERE` values.
+### Query lifecycle
+
+```mermaid
+sequenceDiagram
+    participant App
+    participant SQLmem
+    participant Mem as In-memory SQLite
+    participant DB as Source DB
+
+    App->>SQLmem: execute(SELECT a, b FROM t WHERE id = ?, params)
+    SQLmem->>SQLmem: parse -> table = t, columns = {a, b, id}
+    alt columns already cached
+        SQLmem->>Mem: run query in RAM (with params)
+        Mem-->>SQLmem: rows
+    else cache miss or new column
+        SQLmem->>DB: SELECT a, b, id FROM t   (whole table, no WHERE)
+        DB-->>SQLmem: rows
+        SQLmem->>Mem: store / expand table
+        SQLmem->>Mem: run query in RAM (with params)
+        Mem-->>SQLmem: rows
+    end
+    SQLmem-->>App: list[dict]
+```
+
+Note: query **parameters are applied only to the in-memory query**, never to the source fetch — a cache load always pulls the full table so the cache can answer any later `WHERE` on those columns.
 
 ## Installation
 
@@ -38,7 +80,7 @@ Requires Python 3.14.
 
 ```python
 from sqlmem import CachingEngine
-from sqlalchemy import create_engine, text
+from sqlalchemy import create_engine
 
 base_engine = create_engine("postgresql://user:pass@host/db")
 engine = CachingEngine(base_engine)
@@ -65,7 +107,7 @@ engine.execute(
 engine.execute("SELECT * FROM users")
 ```
 
-`execute()` returns a list of dicts. Parameters are passed straight through to SQLite, so positional (`?`) and named (`:name`) styles both work. Results are compatible with standard iteration patterns.
+`execute()` returns a list of dicts. Parameters are passed straight through to SQLite, so positional (`?`) and named (`:name`) styles both work.
 
 ## Cache behaviour
 
@@ -83,23 +125,106 @@ Query 5: SELECT a FROM orders      → cache hit (table already full)
 
 **Writes are blocked** — INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE raise `ReadOnlyError`. SQLmem is a read-only cache.
 
-## Persistence
+## Incremental (delta) refresh
 
-The in-memory cache is optionally persisted to `cache.db` on disk:
-
-- **On startup**: if `cache.db` exists, it is loaded into memory.
-- **Hourly**: a background thread writes a snapshot to disk.
-- **On shutdown**: a final flush via `atexit` and SIGTERM handler.
-
-Schema version is checked on load — if it does not match, the stale file is discarded and the cache is rebuilt from the database.
-
-## Manual cache invalidation
+Reloading a table with tens of millions of rows on every startup is unacceptable. To avoid it, SQLmem keeps the cache in sync by pulling **only changed rows**. For each delta-tracked table you declare its **last-change timestamp** column and the **key column(s)** that identify a row:
 
 ```python
-engine.invalidate("orders")   # drops the table from cache; next query re-fetches from DB
+from sqlmem import CachingEngine, DeltaConfig
+
+engine = CachingEngine(
+    base_engine,
+    delta={
+        "VW_P_PRATVALUES": DeltaConfig(
+            change_column="LAST_CHANGE_DATE",   # required — the row's change timestamp
+            key_columns=["PRODUCT_PRODUCTNR"],  # optional for base tables (auto-discovered)
+        ),
+    },
+)
+```
+
+**What you must configure, and what is automatic:**
+
+| Item | Source |
+|---|---|
+| which **tables / columns** to cache | **automatic** — learned from the queries that pass through |
+| `change_column` (timestamp) | **manual, always** — its meaning can't be inferred from the column type<sup>*</sup> |
+| `key_columns` (primary key) | **auto-discovered** for real tables (`inspect(engine).get_pk_constraint`); **manual** for views, which carry no key in the DB catalog |
+
+<sup>*</sup> The one exception is a true MSSQL `rowversion`/`timestamp`-typed column, which is unique per table and auto-maintained — that could be detected automatically. A plain `DATETIME` like `LAST_CHANGE_DATE` cannot.
+
+If `key_columns` is omitted, SQLmem tries to read the primary key from the source DB on startup and raises a clear error if it can't (e.g. for a view) so you can supply it explicitly.
+
+### How sync works
+
+The boundary of "what changed since last time" is a **data-driven watermark**, not a wall-clock window. SQLmem persists, per delta-tracked table, `last_synced_at` = the **maximum `change_column` value** actually present in the cache after the previous sync (stored in `cache.db`, so it survives restarts). The next sync pulls `WHERE change_column >= last_synced_at`.
+
+Why a watermark and not `now − 5 min`:
+
+- **No clock dependency** — it compares DB values to DB values, so app-server vs database clock skew is irrelevant.
+- **Survives downtime for free** — after hours offline, `>= watermark` pulls *everything* since then; "catch up since last shutdown" needs no special case.
+- **Never misses late commits** — a wall-clock window can drop a row whose timestamp falls outside the window by the time it commits.
+
+The filter is `>=` (not `>`) so rows sharing the exact boundary timestamp are re-read; combined with **idempotent upsert by `key_columns`**, re-reading a handful of boundary rows each tick is harmless (they overwrite themselves), and no row is ever skipped. The 5-minute interval is only the **polling cadence**, never the filter boundary.
+
+```mermaid
+sequenceDiagram
+    participant Trigger as Startup / every 5 min
+    participant SQLmem
+    participant Mem as In-memory SQLite
+    participant DB as Source DB
+
+    Trigger->>SQLmem: refresh delta-tracked tables
+    SQLmem->>Mem: read last_synced_at for table
+    SQLmem->>DB: SELECT * FROM t WHERE LAST_CHANGE_DATE >= last_synced_at
+    DB-->>SQLmem: only rows changed since the watermark
+    SQLmem->>Mem: upsert rows by key_columns (INSERT OR REPLACE)
+    SQLmem->>Mem: last_synced_at = max(LAST_CHANGE_DATE)
+```
+
+- **First use** of a delta table → full load; the watermark is set to the table's current `max(change_column)`.
+- **On startup** → for each delta table restored from disk, a single catch-up query pulls everything changed **since the last shutdown** and upserts it, bringing the cache back in sync without a full reload.
+- **While running** → a background thread repeats the delta pull every `SQLMEM_REFRESH_INTERVAL` seconds (default 5 minutes), so the cache trails the source DB by at most that interval.
+- Tables **without** a `DeltaConfig` keep the current behaviour: full load on miss, never auto-refreshed.
+
+### Requirements and limits of delta sync
+
+- The `change_column` must be **set by the source DB on every insert/update** and be non-decreasing (e.g. a `DATETIME`/`rowversion`/`timestamp` maintained by a trigger or the application).
+- `key_columns` must uniquely identify a row — they are used to upsert changed rows in place.
+- **Updates, including "deletes by nulling"** (a row that keeps its identity but has values cleared), are handled automatically: the change timestamp bumps, the row is re-pulled and overwritten in place.
+- **Structural changes are not covered by delta sync** — adding/removing attributes, or clearing values *without* bumping `change_column`, won't be picked up. For those, force a clean reload with [`engine.reset()`](#manual-cache-control) (or `invalidate()` for a single table).
+- Hard `DELETE`s of whole rows are not detected by a change-timestamp; this workload doesn't delete rows, but if yours does, use a soft-delete flag column or `reset()`.
+
+## Persistence
+
+The in-memory cache is persisted to `cache.db` on disk:
+
+- **On startup**: if `cache.db` exists, it is loaded into memory.
+- **Periodically**: a background thread writes a snapshot to disk every `SQLMEM_BACKUP_INTERVAL` seconds.
+- **On shutdown**: a final flush via `atexit` and SIGTERM handler.
+
+The schema version is checked on load — if it does not match, the stale file is discarded and the cache is rebuilt from the database.
+
+## Manual cache control
+
+```python
+engine.invalidate("orders")   # drop one table from cache; next query re-fetches it from DB
+engine.reset()                # wipe the whole cache (RAM + cache.db) — full clean slate
+engine.refresh()              # pull deltas for all delta-tracked tables now
 engine.close()                # flush to disk and shut down background thread
 ```
 
+Use `reset()` after a **structural change** in the source (columns added/removed, values cleared in bulk without bumping the change timestamp) so the cache rebuilds from scratch. `invalidate(table)` is the targeted version for a single table.
+
+## Runtime statistics
+
+```python
+stats = engine.stats          # Stats snapshot
+print(stats.hits, stats.misses, stats.refetches)
+for name, t in stats.tables.items():
+    print(name, t.rows, t.columns, t.last_refresh)
+```
+
 ## Configuration
 
 Set via environment variables or a `.env` file:
@@ -108,8 +233,9 @@ Set via environment variables or a `.env` file:
 |---|---|---|
 | `SQLMEM_DEBUG` | `false` | `true` enables DEBUG-level logging |
 | `SQLMEM_CACHE_DB` | `cache.db` | Path to the on-disk persistence file |
-| `SQLMEM_BACKUP_INTERVAL` | `3600` | Backup interval in seconds |
+| `SQLMEM_BACKUP_INTERVAL` | `3600` | Disk backup interval in seconds |
 | `SQLMEM_SQL_DIALECT` | `tsql` | sqlglot dialect used to parse incoming SQL (e.g. `tsql`, `postgres`, `mysql`) |
+| `SQLMEM_REFRESH_INTERVAL` | `300` | delta-refresh interval in seconds for delta-tracked tables |
 
 ## Exceptions
 
@@ -142,9 +268,16 @@ Set `SQLMEM_DEBUG=true` in `.env` to make the default level DEBUG when no explic
 - In a multi-table (JOIN) query, every column must be qualified with its table or alias; unqualified columns raise `UnsupportedQueryError`.
 - Tables are keyed by their base name — two tables with the same name in different schemas share one cache entry.
 - No distributed cache backend (Redis etc.).
-- No transactional consistency guarantees.
+- No transactional consistency guarantees; the cache trails the source DB.
 - Write operations (INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE) are always blocked.
 
+## Roadmap
+
+- [x] **Incremental (delta) refresh** via per-table change-timestamp + key columns (see above) — the key feature for large tables.
+- [x] **Primary-key auto-discovery** from the source DB (`inspect(engine).get_pk_constraint`) so `key_columns` is only needed for views.
+- [x] **`engine.reset()`** — wipe RAM + `cache.db` for a clean rebuild after structural changes.
+- [ ] Per-table TTL (time-to-live) expiry.
+
 ## Dependencies
 
 | Layer | Library |

project.md

@@ -191,6 +191,8 @@ SQLMEM_DEBUG=true   # DEBUG level — podrobný výpis každého dotazu, cache o
 - [x] **Podpora `SELECT *` (wildcard)**: Načte celou tabulku do cache, označí ji jako `is_full` — další dotazy na libovolný sloupec jsou vždy cache hit bez re-fetch.
 - [x] **Podpora JOIN**: Parser extrahuje sloupce z každé joinované tabulky zvlášť, Column Registry je sleduje nezávisle. Cache Manager zajistí, že všechny potřebné tabulky jsou v paměti před spuštěním dotazu.
 - [x] **Třídílné názvy tabulek**: `[catalog].[schema].[table]` se cachuje pod base name, in-memory dotaz prefix stripuje.
+- [x] **Inkrementální (delta) refresh**: per-tabulku `DeltaConfig(change_column, key_columns)` — sync jen změněných řádků přes datový watermark `max(change_column)` (`>=` + idempotentní upsert podle klíče), catch-up na startu + background thread (`SQLMEM_REFRESH_INTERVAL`, default 300 s). PK se auto-zjistí ze zdrojové DB, pro views nutno zadat ručně.
+- [x] **`engine.reset()`**: smaže celou cache (RAM + `cache.db`) pro čistý rebuild po strukturální změně.
 
 ## TODO — budoucí funkce
 

pyproject.toml

@@ -1,6 +1,6 @@
 [project]
 name = "sqlmem"
-version = "1.2.0"
+version = "1.3.1"
 description = ""
 authors = [
     {name = "jan.doubravsky@gmail.com"}

src/sqlmem/__init__.py

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ from typing import Any
 from loguru import logger
 
 from .config import DEBUG
+from .delta import DeltaConfig
 from .engine import CachingEngine
 from .exceptions import ReadOnlyError, UnsupportedQueryError
 from .stats import Stats, TableStats
@@ -35,4 +36,12 @@ def add_sink(sink: Any, *, level: str | None = None, **kwargs: Any) -> None:
     logger.add(sink, level=level or ("DEBUG" if DEBUG else "INFO"), filter="sqlmem", **kwargs)
 
 
-__all__ = ["CachingEngine", "ReadOnlyError", "UnsupportedQueryError", "Stats", "TableStats", "add_sink"]
+__all__ = [
+    "CachingEngine",
+    "DeltaConfig",
+    "ReadOnlyError",
+    "UnsupportedQueryError",
+    "Stats",
+    "TableStats",
+    "add_sink",
+]

src/sqlmem/_coerce.py

@@ -0,0 +1,40 @@
+"""Coerce source-DB values into types ``sqlite3`` can bind.
+
+pyodbc returns ``NUMERIC``/``DECIMAL``/``MONEY`` as :class:`decimal.Decimal` and
+date/time columns as :mod:`datetime` objects, none of which ``sqlite3`` binds
+natively. Cache columns are ``TEXT``, so stringifying is lossless and consistent
+with how the data is stored. This is done **locally** — never via a global
+``sqlite3.register_adapter`` — so the host application's ``sqlite3`` behaviour is
+left untouched.
+"""
+
+import datetime
+import decimal
+import uuid
+from typing import Any
+
+Params = tuple | list | dict | None
+
+
+def to_sqlite(value: Any) -> Any:
+    if isinstance(value, decimal.Decimal):
+        return str(value)
+    if isinstance(value, (datetime.datetime, datetime.date, datetime.time)):
+        return value.isoformat()
+    if isinstance(value, uuid.UUID):
+        return str(value)
+    if isinstance(value, bytearray):
+        return bytes(value)
+    return value
+
+
+def coerce_row(row: tuple) -> tuple:
+    return tuple(to_sqlite(v) for v in row)
+
+
+def coerce_params(params: Params) -> tuple | dict | None:
+    if params is None:
+        return None
+    if isinstance(params, dict):
+        return {key: to_sqlite(val) for key, val in params.items()}
+    return tuple(to_sqlite(val) for val in params)

src/sqlmem/cache.py

@@ -8,8 +8,9 @@ from pathlib import Path
 from loguru import logger
 
 import sqlmem._meta as _meta
+from ._coerce import coerce_params, coerce_row
 
-SCHEMA_VERSION = 2
+SCHEMA_VERSION = 3
 
 
 class CacheManager:
@@ -41,7 +42,8 @@ class CacheManager:
                 table_name      TEXT PRIMARY KEY,
                 last_refresh_at TEXT NOT NULL,
                 row_count       INTEGER,
-                is_full         INTEGER NOT NULL DEFAULT 0
+                is_full         INTEGER NOT NULL DEFAULT 0,
+                last_synced_at  TEXT
             );
             CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS _sqlmem_columns (
                 table_name  TEXT NOT NULL,
@@ -159,18 +161,103 @@ class CacheManager:
         cols = ", ".join(columns)
         logger.info(f"Fetching {table!r} columns [{cols}] from source DB")
         rows = source_conn.execute(f"SELECT {cols} FROM {table}").fetchall()
+        clean_rows = [coerce_row(row) for row in rows]
 
         with self._lock:
             self._mem_conn.execute(f"DROP TABLE IF EXISTS {table}")
             col_defs = ", ".join(f"{c} TEXT" for c in columns)
             self._mem_conn.execute(f"CREATE TABLE {table} ({col_defs})")
             placeholders = ", ".join("?" * len(columns))
-            self._mem_conn.executemany(f"INSERT INTO {table} VALUES ({placeholders})", rows)
+            self._mem_conn.executemany(f"INSERT INTO {table} VALUES ({placeholders})", clean_rows)
             self._mem_conn.commit()
 
         self.mark_table_refreshed(table, len(rows), full)
         logger.info(f"Table {table!r} cached ({len(rows)} rows, columns: {columns})")
 
+    def execute_in_memory(
+        self, sql: str, params: tuple | list | dict | None = None
+    ) -> tuple[list[str], list[tuple]]:
+        """Run a read query against the in-memory cache, serialized with writers."""
+        bound = coerce_params(params)
+        with self._lock:
+            cursor = self._mem_conn.execute(sql) if bound is None else self._mem_conn.execute(sql, bound)
+            col_names = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description]
+            rows = cursor.fetchall()
+        return col_names, rows
+
+    # --- delta refresh support ---------------------------------------------
+
+    def get_table_columns(self, table: str) -> list[str]:
+        """Authoritative ordered column list of a cached table (via PRAGMA)."""
+        rows = self._mem_conn.execute(f"PRAGMA table_info({table})").fetchall()
+        return [r[1] for r in rows]
+
+    def create_unique_index(self, table: str, key_columns: list[str]) -> None:
+        """Create the unique index on *key_columns* that makes upsert-by-key work."""
+        cols = ", ".join(key_columns)
+        index = f"idx_{table}_pk"
+        with self._lock:
+            self._mem_conn.execute(
+                f"CREATE UNIQUE INDEX IF NOT EXISTS {index} ON {table} ({cols})"
+            )
+            self._mem_conn.commit()
+
+    def get_last_synced_at(self, table: str) -> str | None:
+        row = self._mem_conn.execute(
+            "SELECT last_synced_at FROM _sqlmem_tables WHERE table_name = ?", (table,)
+        ).fetchone()
+        return row[0] if row else None
+
+    def set_last_synced_at(self, table: str, value: str | None) -> None:
+        with self._lock:
+            self._mem_conn.execute(
+                "UPDATE _sqlmem_tables SET last_synced_at = ? WHERE table_name = ?",
+                (value, table),
+            )
+            self._mem_conn.commit()
+
+    def max_value(self, table: str, column: str) -> str | None:
+        """Maximum value of *column* across cached rows (the delta watermark)."""
+        row = self._mem_conn.execute(f"SELECT MAX({column}) FROM {table}").fetchone()
+        return row[0] if row else None
+
+    def upsert_rows(self, table: str, columns: list[str], rows: list[tuple]) -> None:
+        """Insert-or-replace *rows* by the table's unique key, then refresh row_count."""
+        col_list = ", ".join(columns)
+        placeholders = ", ".join("?" * len(columns))
+        clean_rows = [coerce_row(row) for row in rows]
+        with self._lock:
+            self._mem_conn.executemany(
+                f"INSERT OR REPLACE INTO {table} ({col_list}) VALUES ({placeholders})",
+                clean_rows,
+            )
+            self._mem_conn.commit()
+            count = self._mem_conn.execute(f"SELECT COUNT(*) FROM {table}").fetchone()[0]
+        self.mark_table_refreshed(table, count, self.is_table_full(table))
+
+    def reset(self) -> None:
+        """Wipe the entire cache — every cached table plus the on-disk file."""
+        logger.info("Resetting cache — dropping all cached tables.")
+        with self._lock:
+            user_tables = [
+                r[0]
+                for r in self._mem_conn.execute(
+                    "SELECT name FROM sqlite_master "
+                    r"WHERE type = 'table' AND name NOT LIKE 'sqlite\_%' ESCAPE '\' "
+                r"AND name NOT LIKE '\_sqlmem\_%' ESCAPE '\'"
+                ).fetchall()
+            ]
+            for name in user_tables:
+                self._mem_conn.execute(f"DROP TABLE IF EXISTS {name}")
+            self._mem_conn.execute("DELETE FROM _sqlmem_tables")
+            self._mem_conn.execute("DELETE FROM _sqlmem_columns")
+            self._mem_conn.commit()
+        try:
+            if self._db_path.exists():
+                self._db_path.unlink()
+        except OSError as e:
+            logger.error(f"Failed to delete cache file {self._db_path}: {e}")
+
     def close(self) -> None:
         self._backup_to_disk()
         self._closed = True

src/sqlmem/config.py

@@ -9,6 +9,8 @@ load_dotenv()
 DEBUG = os.getenv("SQLMEM_DEBUG", "false").lower() == "true"
 CACHE_DB_PATH = Path(os.getenv("SQLMEM_CACHE_DB", "cache.db"))
 BACKUP_INTERVAL_SECONDS = int(os.getenv("SQLMEM_BACKUP_INTERVAL", "3600"))
+# How often (seconds) the background thread pulls deltas for delta-tracked tables.
+REFRESH_INTERVAL_SECONDS = int(os.getenv("SQLMEM_REFRESH_INTERVAL", "300"))
 # Dialect used by sqlglot to parse incoming SQL. Defaults to T-SQL (SQL Server),
 # which also accepts ANSI SQL. In-memory queries are always rendered to SQLite.
 SQL_DIALECT = os.getenv("SQLMEM_SQL_DIALECT", "tsql")

src/sqlmem/delta.py

@@ -0,0 +1,78 @@
+import sqlite3
+from dataclasses import dataclass, field
+
+from loguru import logger
+
+from .cache import CacheManager
+
+
+@dataclass(frozen=True)
+class DeltaConfig:
+    """Per-table configuration for incremental (delta) refresh.
+
+    *change_column* is the column the source DB updates on every insert/update
+    (a non-decreasing timestamp / rowversion). *key_columns* uniquely identify a
+    row and are used to upsert changed rows in place; leave them empty to let the
+    engine auto-discover the primary key from the source DB (works for real
+    tables, not views).
+    """
+
+    change_column: str
+    key_columns: list[str] = field(default_factory=list)
+
+
+@dataclass(frozen=True)
+class ResolvedDelta:
+    """A :class:`DeltaConfig` with ``key_columns`` resolved to concrete columns."""
+
+    change_column: str
+    key_columns: list[str]
+
+
+class DeltaRefresher:
+    """Pulls only changed rows for delta-tracked tables and upserts them.
+
+    Uses a data-driven high-watermark (``max(change_column)`` actually cached)
+    with a ``>=`` overlap and idempotent upsert by key, so no row is ever missed
+    and boundary rows are harmlessly re-read.
+    """
+
+    def __init__(self, cache: CacheManager, delta: dict[str, ResolvedDelta]) -> None:
+        self._cache = cache
+        self._delta = delta
+
+    def refresh(self, source_conn: sqlite3.Connection) -> None:
+        for table, cfg in self._delta.items():
+            if not self._cache.is_table_cached(table):
+                continue
+            try:
+                self._refresh_table(table, cfg, source_conn)
+            except Exception as e:  # one bad table must not stop the others
+                logger.error(f"Delta refresh failed for {table!r}: {e}")
+
+    def _refresh_table(
+        self, table: str, cfg: ResolvedDelta, source_conn: sqlite3.Connection
+    ) -> None:
+        columns = self._cache.get_table_columns(table)
+        watermark = self._cache.get_last_synced_at(table)
+        col_list = ", ".join(columns)
+
+        if watermark is None:
+            rows = source_conn.execute(f"SELECT {col_list} FROM {table}").fetchall()
+        else:
+            rows = source_conn.execute(
+                f"SELECT {col_list} FROM {table} WHERE {cfg.change_column} >= ?",
+                (watermark,),
+            ).fetchall()
+
+        if not rows:
+            logger.debug(f"Delta refresh {table!r}: no changes since {watermark!r}")
+            return
+
+        self._cache.upsert_rows(table, columns, rows)
+        new_watermark = self._cache.max_value(table, cfg.change_column)
+        self._cache.set_last_synced_at(table, new_watermark)
+        logger.info(
+            f"Delta refresh {table!r}: {len(rows)} row(s) upserted, "
+            f"watermark {watermark!r} → {new_watermark!r}"
+        )

src/sqlmem/engine.py

@@ -1,11 +1,14 @@
 import sqlite3
+import threading
 from typing import cast
 
 from loguru import logger
+from sqlalchemy import inspect
 from sqlalchemy.engine import Engine
 
 from .cache import CacheManager
-from .config import BACKUP_INTERVAL_SECONDS, CACHE_DB_PATH
+from .config import BACKUP_INTERVAL_SECONDS, CACHE_DB_PATH, REFRESH_INTERVAL_SECONDS
+from .delta import DeltaConfig, DeltaRefresher, ResolvedDelta
 from .executor import QueryExecutor
 from .parser import Params, parse
 from .registry import ColumnRegistry
@@ -15,24 +18,80 @@ from .stats import Stats, StatsCollector
 class CachingEngine:
     """Transparent SQLAlchemy-compatible cache layer."""
 
-    def __init__(self, source_engine: Engine) -> None:
+    def __init__(
+        self,
+        source_engine: Engine,
+        delta: dict[str, DeltaConfig] | None = None,
+    ) -> None:
         self._source_engine = source_engine
         self._cache = CacheManager(CACHE_DB_PATH, BACKUP_INTERVAL_SECONDS)
         self._registry = ColumnRegistry(self._cache.connection)
         self._stats = StatsCollector()
+        self._refresh_interval = REFRESH_INTERVAL_SECONDS
+        self._delta = self._resolve_delta(delta or {})
+        self._refresher = DeltaRefresher(self._cache, self._delta)
+
+        if self._delta:
+            self._run_refresh()  # catch up tables restored from disk
+            self._start_refresh_thread()
+
         logger.info("CachingEngine initialized.")
 
+    def _resolve_delta(self, delta: dict[str, DeltaConfig]) -> dict[str, ResolvedDelta]:
+        """Resolve each DeltaConfig, auto-discovering the primary key when omitted."""
+        resolved: dict[str, ResolvedDelta] = {}
+        inspector = None
+        for table, cfg in delta.items():
+            keys = list(cfg.key_columns)
+            if not keys:
+                inspector = inspector or inspect(self._source_engine)
+                pk = inspector.get_pk_constraint(table)
+                keys = list(pk.get("constrained_columns") or [])
+                if not keys:
+                    raise ValueError(
+                        f"No primary key found for {table!r} in the source DB "
+                        "(views have none) — set key_columns in its DeltaConfig."
+                    )
+                logger.info(f"Delta {table!r}: auto-discovered key columns {keys}")
+            resolved[table] = ResolvedDelta(change_column=cfg.change_column, key_columns=keys)
+        return resolved
+
     @property
     def stats(self) -> Stats:
+        with self._cache._lock:
             return self._stats.snapshot(self._cache.connection)
 
     def execute(self, sql: str, params: Params = None) -> list[dict]:
         parsed = parse(sql, params)
         with self._source_engine.connect() as sa_conn:
             raw_conn = cast(sqlite3.Connection, sa_conn.connection.dbapi_connection)
-            executor = QueryExecutor(self._cache, self._registry, raw_conn, self._stats)
+            executor = QueryExecutor(
+                self._cache, self._registry, raw_conn, self._stats, self._delta
+            )
             return executor.execute(parsed)
 
+    def refresh(self) -> None:
+        """Pull deltas for all delta-tracked tables now (also runs on a timer)."""
+        self._run_refresh()
+
+    def _run_refresh(self) -> None:
+        try:
+            with self._source_engine.connect() as sa_conn:
+                raw_conn = cast(sqlite3.Connection, sa_conn.connection.dbapi_connection)
+                self._refresher.refresh(raw_conn)
+        except Exception as e:
+            logger.error(f"Delta refresh cycle failed: {e}")
+
+    def _start_refresh_thread(self) -> None:
+        def loop() -> None:
+            event = threading.Event()
+            while not event.wait(self._refresh_interval):
+                self._run_refresh()
+
+        t = threading.Thread(target=loop, daemon=True, name="sqlmem-delta")
+        t.start()
+        logger.debug(f"Delta refresh thread started (interval={self._refresh_interval}s)")
+
     def invalidate(self, table: str) -> None:
         logger.info(f"Manually invalidating cache for table {table!r}")
         with self._cache._lock:
@@ -45,6 +104,11 @@ class CachingEngine:
             )
             self._cache.connection.commit()
 
+    def reset(self) -> None:
+        """Wipe the whole cache (RAM + cache.db). Use after structural source changes."""
+        self._cache.reset()
+        logger.info("Cache reset — all tables will be reloaded on next use.")
+
     def close(self) -> None:
         self._cache.close()
         logger.info("CachingEngine closed.")

src/sqlmem/executor.py

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@ import sqlite3
 from loguru import logger
 
 from .cache import CacheManager
+from .delta import ResolvedDelta
 from .parser import ParsedQuery
 from .registry import ColumnRegistry
 from .stats import StatsCollector
@@ -15,11 +16,13 @@ class QueryExecutor:
         registry: ColumnRegistry,
         source_conn: sqlite3.Connection,
         stats: StatsCollector,
+        delta: dict[str, ResolvedDelta] | None = None,
     ) -> None:
         self._cache = cache
         self._registry = registry
         self._source_conn = source_conn
         self._stats = stats
+        self._delta = delta or {}
 
     def execute(self, parsed: ParsedQuery) -> list[dict]:
         for table in parsed.tables:
@@ -46,8 +49,7 @@ class QueryExecutor:
             self._stats.record_miss()
 
         columns = self._cache.discover_columns(table, self._source_conn)
-        self._cache.load_table(table, columns, self._source_conn, full=True)
-        self._registry.update(table, columns)
+        self._load(table, columns, full=True)
 
     def _ensure_columns(self, table: str, columns: list[str]) -> None:
         """Load *table* with at least *columns*, refetching only when columns are missing."""
@@ -69,16 +71,25 @@ class QueryExecutor:
             self._stats.record_miss()
 
         all_columns = list(self._registry.get_columns(table)) + missing
-        self._cache.load_table(table, all_columns, self._source_conn)
-        self._registry.update(table, all_columns)
+        self._load(table, all_columns, full=False)
+
+    def _load(self, table: str, columns: list[str], full: bool) -> None:
+        """Fetch *table* into cache, adding delta key/timestamp columns when tracked."""
+        cfg = self._delta.get(table)
+        if cfg:
+            # The cache must always hold the key (to upsert) and the change column
+            # (to compute the watermark), even if no query referenced them.
+            columns = list(dict.fromkeys([*columns, *cfg.key_columns, cfg.change_column]))
+
+        self._cache.load_table(table, columns, self._source_conn, full=full)
+        self._registry.update(table, columns)
+
+        if cfg:
+            self._cache.create_unique_index(table, cfg.key_columns)
+            watermark = self._cache.max_value(table, cfg.change_column)
+            self._cache.set_last_synced_at(table, watermark)
 
     def _run_in_memory(self, parsed: ParsedQuery) -> list[dict]:
         logger.debug(f"Executing in SQLite RAM: {parsed.sqlite_sql!r} params={parsed.params!r}")
-        conn = self._cache.connection
-        if parsed.params is None:
-            cursor = conn.execute(parsed.sqlite_sql)
-        else:
-            cursor = conn.execute(parsed.sqlite_sql, parsed.params)
-        col_names = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description]
-        rows = cursor.fetchall()
+        col_names, rows = self._cache.execute_in_memory(parsed.sqlite_sql, parsed.params)
         return [dict(zip(col_names, row)) for row in rows]

tests/test_coerce.py

@@ -0,0 +1,109 @@
+import datetime
+import decimal
+import uuid
+
+import pytest
+
+from sqlmem._coerce import coerce_params, to_sqlite
+from sqlmem.cache import CacheManager
+
+
+class _FakeCursor:
+    def __init__(self, rows):
+        self._rows = rows
+        self.description = None
+
+    def fetchall(self):
+        return self._rows
+
+
+class FakeSource:
+    """Stand-in for a pyodbc connection that returns non-sqlite-native types."""
+
+    def __init__(self, rows):
+        self._rows = rows
+
+    def execute(self, sql, *args):
+        return _FakeCursor(self._rows)
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def cache(tmp_path):
+    c = CacheManager(db_path=tmp_path / "cache.db", backup_interval=9999)
+    yield c
+    c.close()
+
+
+# --- to_sqlite / coerce_params unit tests -----------------------------------
+
+
+def test_decimal_to_str():
+    assert to_sqlite(decimal.Decimal("9.99")) == "9.99"
+
+
+def test_decimal_keeps_precision():
+    assert to_sqlite(decimal.Decimal("123456789.123456789")) == "123456789.123456789"
+
+
+def test_datetime_to_iso():
+    assert to_sqlite(datetime.datetime(2026, 6, 1, 10, 0, 0)) == "2026-06-01T10:00:00"
+
+
+def test_date_to_iso():
+    assert to_sqlite(datetime.date(2026, 6, 1)) == "2026-06-01"
+
+
+def test_time_to_iso():
+    assert to_sqlite(datetime.time(10, 30, 0)) == "10:30:00"
+
+
+def test_uuid_to_str():
+    u = uuid.uuid4()
+    assert to_sqlite(u) == str(u)
+
+
+def test_bytearray_to_bytes():
+    assert to_sqlite(bytearray(b"abc")) == b"abc"
+
+
+@pytest.mark.parametrize("value", [1, 1.5, "text", None, b"blob", True])
+def test_native_values_pass_through(value):
+    assert to_sqlite(value) == value
+
+
+def test_coerce_params_tuple():
+    assert coerce_params((decimal.Decimal("1.5"), "x")) == ("1.5", "x")
+
+
+def test_coerce_params_dict():
+    assert coerce_params({"p": decimal.Decimal("2")}) == {"p": "2"}
+
+
+def test_coerce_params_none():
+    assert coerce_params(None) is None
+
+
+# --- integration: values reach the cache through coercion -------------------
+
+
+def test_load_table_coerces_decimal_and_datetime(cache):
+    rows = [("1", decimal.Decimal("9.99"), datetime.datetime(2026, 6, 1, 10, 0, 0))]
+    cache.load_table("t", ["id", "price", "changed"], FakeSource(rows))
+    _, out = cache.execute_in_memory("SELECT id, price, changed FROM t")
+    assert out == [("1", "9.99", "2026-06-01T10:00:00")]
+
+
+def test_decimal_where_param_matches_text_value(cache):
+    cache.load_table("t", ["price"], FakeSource([("9.99",)]))
+    _, out = cache.execute_in_memory(
+        "SELECT price FROM t WHERE price = ?", (decimal.Decimal("9.99"),)
+    )
+    assert out == [("9.99",)]
+
+
+def test_upsert_rows_coerces_decimal(cache):
+    cache.load_table("t", ["id", "price"], FakeSource([("1", "0")]))
+    cache.create_unique_index("t", ["id"])
+    cache.upsert_rows("t", ["id", "price"], [("1", decimal.Decimal("12.50"))])
+    _, out = cache.execute_in_memory("SELECT price FROM t WHERE id = '1'")
+    assert out == [("12.50",)]

tests/test_delta.py

@@ -0,0 +1,189 @@
+import sqlite3
+from types import SimpleNamespace
+
+import pytest
+from sqlalchemy import create_engine
+
+import sqlmem.engine as eng_mod
+from sqlmem import CachingEngine, DeltaConfig
+from sqlmem.cache import CacheManager
+from sqlmem.delta import DeltaRefresher, ResolvedDelta
+from sqlmem.executor import QueryExecutor
+from sqlmem.parser import parse
+from sqlmem.registry import ColumnRegistry
+from sqlmem.stats import StatsCollector
+
+
+def cached_rows(cache, sql):
+    cols, rows = cache.execute_in_memory(sql)
+    return [dict(zip(cols, row)) for row in rows]
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Refresher unit tests (in-memory source connection)
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def source_conn():
+    conn = sqlite3.connect(":memory:")
+    conn.executescript(
+        """
+        CREATE TABLE products (id TEXT PRIMARY KEY, name TEXT, price TEXT, changed TEXT);
+        INSERT INTO products VALUES
+            ('1', 'Widget', '9.99',  '2026-06-01 10:00:00'),
+            ('2', 'Gadget', '19.99', '2026-06-01 10:05:00');
+        """
+    )
+    conn.commit()
+    yield conn
+    conn.close()
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def env(tmp_path, source_conn):
+    cache = CacheManager(db_path=tmp_path / "cache.db", backup_interval=9999)
+    registry = ColumnRegistry(cache.connection)
+    stats = StatsCollector()
+    delta = {"products": ResolvedDelta(change_column="changed", key_columns=["id"])}
+    executor = QueryExecutor(cache, registry, source_conn, stats, delta)
+    refresher = DeltaRefresher(cache, delta)
+    # Initial load — caches id, name, price (+ augmented key/change columns).
+    executor.execute(parse("SELECT id, name, price FROM products"))
+    yield SimpleNamespace(cache=cache, source=source_conn, refresher=refresher)
+    cache.close()
+
+
+def test_load_augments_key_and_change_columns(env):
+    cols = env.cache.get_table_columns("products")
+    assert {"id", "name", "price", "changed"}.issubset(set(cols))
+
+
+def test_initial_watermark_is_max_change(env):
+    assert env.cache.get_last_synced_at("products") == "2026-06-01 10:05:00"
+
+
+def test_refresh_applies_updates(env):
+    env.source.execute(
+        "UPDATE products SET price = '7.77', changed = '2026-06-01 10:10:00' WHERE id = '1'"
+    )
+    env.source.commit()
+    env.refresher.refresh(env.source)
+
+    rows = {r["id"]: r for r in cached_rows(env.cache, "SELECT id, price FROM products")}
+    assert rows["1"]["price"] == "7.77"
+    assert env.cache.get_last_synced_at("products") == "2026-06-01 10:10:00"
+
+
+def test_refresh_inserts_new_rows(env):
+    env.source.execute(
+        "INSERT INTO products VALUES ('3', 'Sprocket', '5.00', '2026-06-01 10:20:00')"
+    )
+    env.source.commit()
+    env.refresher.refresh(env.source)
+
+    ids = {r["id"] for r in cached_rows(env.cache, "SELECT id FROM products")}
+    assert ids == {"1", "2", "3"}
+
+
+def test_boundary_timestamp_not_missed_and_idempotent(env):
+    # New row sharing the exact watermark timestamp must still be picked up (>=),
+    # and the row already at that timestamp must not be duplicated.
+    env.source.execute(
+        "INSERT INTO products VALUES ('3', 'Sprocket', '5.00', '2026-06-01 10:05:00')"
+    )
+    env.source.commit()
+    env.refresher.refresh(env.source)
+    env.refresher.refresh(env.source)  # idempotent — running twice changes nothing
+
+    rows = cached_rows(env.cache, "SELECT id FROM products")
+    assert sorted(r["id"] for r in rows) == ["1", "2", "3"]
+
+
+def test_delete_by_nulling(env):
+    env.source.execute(
+        "UPDATE products SET name = NULL, changed = '2026-06-01 10:30:00' WHERE id = '1'"
+    )
+    env.source.commit()
+    env.refresher.refresh(env.source)
+
+    rows = {r["id"]: r for r in cached_rows(env.cache, "SELECT id, name FROM products")}
+    assert rows["1"]["name"] is None
+
+
+def test_refresh_without_changes_is_noop(env):
+    before = cached_rows(env.cache, "SELECT id, name, price FROM products")
+    env.refresher.refresh(env.source)
+    after = cached_rows(env.cache, "SELECT id, name, price FROM products")
+    assert before == after
+
+
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+# Engine-level: PK auto-discovery, reset, end-to-end refresh
+# ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def source_db(tmp_path):
+    db_path = tmp_path / "source.db"
+    conn = sqlite3.connect(db_path)
+    conn.executescript(
+        """
+        CREATE TABLE products (id TEXT PRIMARY KEY, name TEXT, changed TEXT);
+        INSERT INTO products VALUES ('1', 'Widget', '2026-06-01 10:00:00');
+        CREATE VIEW vw_products AS SELECT id, name FROM products;
+        """
+    )
+    conn.commit()
+    conn.close()
+    return db_path
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def source_engine(source_db):
+    engine = create_engine(f"sqlite:///{source_db}")
+    yield engine
+    engine.dispose()
+
+
+@pytest.fixture
+def patched_cache(tmp_path, monkeypatch):
+    monkeypatch.setattr(eng_mod, "CACHE_DB_PATH", tmp_path / "cache.db")
+    monkeypatch.setattr(eng_mod, "BACKUP_INTERVAL_SECONDS", 9999)
+
+
+def test_pk_auto_discovery(source_engine, patched_cache):
+    engine = CachingEngine(source_engine, delta={"products": DeltaConfig(change_column="changed")})
+    assert engine._delta["products"].key_columns == ["id"]
+    engine.close()
+
+
+def test_view_without_key_raises(source_engine, patched_cache):
+    with pytest.raises(ValueError):
+        CachingEngine(source_engine, delta={"vw_products": DeltaConfig(change_column="name")})
+
+
+def test_engine_reset(source_engine, patched_cache):
+    engine = CachingEngine(source_engine)
+    engine.execute("SELECT id, name FROM products")
+    assert engine._cache.is_table_cached("products") is True
+    engine.reset()
+    assert engine._cache.is_table_cached("products") is False
+    engine.close()
+
+
+def test_engine_delta_refresh_end_to_end(source_engine, source_db, patched_cache):
+    engine = CachingEngine(
+        source_engine, delta={"products": DeltaConfig(change_column="changed", key_columns=["id"])}
+    )
+    engine.execute("SELECT id, name FROM products")  # caches, watermark = 10:00
+
+    conn = sqlite3.connect(source_db)
+    conn.execute("UPDATE products SET name = 'Widget2', changed = '2026-06-01 10:06:00' WHERE id = '1'")
+    conn.execute("INSERT INTO products VALUES ('2', 'Gadget', '2026-06-01 10:05:00')")
+    conn.commit()
+    conn.close()
+
+    engine.refresh()
+    rows = {r["id"]: r for r in engine.execute("SELECT id, name FROM products")}
+    assert rows["1"]["name"] == "Widget2"
+    assert rows["2"]["name"] == "Gadget"
+    engine.close()